Strategizing optimum location Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Strategizing optimum location - Essay Example The first two will strategize manufacturing concerns of the abattoir, whereas the last one is a service roadmap. Analysis and theoretical briefing: The standard design of an abattoir goes somewhat like this: a 60 m2 by 30 m2 rectangular Plan consisting mainly of 1)Production module (Pi): P1 slaughter floor, P2 lairage (store area for animals prior to slaughter), P3 chiller, P4 tripe room, P5 meat cutting and processing. 2)Service module (Si): S1 water supply, S2 effluent disposal, S3 solid waste and blood disposal, S4 hide and skin processing, S5 electric light and power. For our case study, we restrict our discussions on a simplistic level only. Let us examine how standard Operation procedures apply in this case. Using linear programming, we need to mainly determine the quantity and variety (e.g. cattle, pigs, sheep and goat, etc.) of slaughter needed/day based on market demand; in this example the "objective function" is market revenue (Ri) out of beef (x1) and pork (x2), and the constraints are space requirements, and market "demand".

Franklin Delano Roosevelt Essay Example for Free

Franklin Delano Roosevelt Essay Who can forget the initials FDR? Frank Delano Roosevelt was the 32nd President of the United States. He was a very good public servant. In fact, he has served for 12 years (1933-1945) as the President of America and has great involvement during the Second World War and the world economic crisis. He worked hard and made the New Deal to aid the great depression that the world has suffered that time. With the New Deal, he was able to give some relief to the unemployed and to reform the economic systems. He was able to established several programs that became instrumental in the recovery of the economy and the nation’s commerce. One of his great contribution and became one of his essential legacies is the Social Security System. It was January 30, 1882 when Franklin D. Roosevelt was born in Hyde Park, New York. He was the good son of James and Sara Roosevelt. He acquired his education with the aid of his parent and private tutors. He got an excellent educational background. During his preparatory, he was send to Groton in Massachusetts. Amusingly, he acquired his bachelor degree in History in Harvard for only three years. After this, he took law at the Columbia University and passed the bar examination in 1907. He exercised his law expertise in 3 years in a popular law firm in New York. He was happily married to Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, who was the niece of the late President Theodore Roosevelt. They have six children in which five only survives during infancy; Anna, James, Elliot, Franklin, Jr. , and John. In 1910, his political career has started and been elected as a Senator under the banner of the Democrat Party. Two years after, he was reelected as a Senator. He supported Woodrow Wilson in his candidacy at the Democratic National Convention and as a reward for his support, he was appointed as the Assistant of the Navy for seven years. He was an effective and efficient administrator of Navy. His experience in the Navy has prepared him for his future position as the commander-in-chief during the Second World War. He was nominated for vice president by the Democratic Party during the 1920’s election however; many anti-Wilson plans have gained popularity, and thus making the Republican Party won the presidency in 1920. Roosevelt’s political career suddenly stops. In 1921, Roosevelt has stricken a poliomyelitis while having a summer vacation at the Campobello Island, New Brunswick. With a crippling illness, he established a foundation, which aims to help polio victims, and eventually directed the establishment March of Dimes program that funded anti-polio vaccines. With his current situation, Roosevelt became afraid to return to politics but with the encouragement of his wife Eleanor and Louis Howe, Roosevelt resumed his political runs. In 1924, he nominated New York Governor Alfred E. Smith for president however, smith lost to his co-nominee John W. Davis. In 1928, finally Smith became the Democratic candidate for President and campaigned for Roosevelt candidacy as Governor of New York. Unfortunately, Smith lost the Presidential election to Herbert Hoover. On the other hand, Roosevelt has won the election and been elected as the new Governor of New York. He was reelected as Governor in 1930. Following this, he then starts the campaign for presidency. I was the right time for Roosevelt to enhance his reputation. The economic depression severely damaged the reputation of President Hoover and the rest of the Republicans. During that time, Roosevelt has won the nomination as the Democratic Party candidate for president. He called for government intervention, which aims to give a relief, recovery and reform in the economic status of the United States. In 1932, he became the new president of US defeating Hoover by seven million votes. The depression has worsened the economic situation; closing of many factories and farms, increasing bank failures and rate of unemployment. Roosevelt has faced the greatest battle of his life. To be able to cope up with the worsening situations, he immediately undertook preemptive actions and initiated the New Deal. His actions include the closing of banks temporarily to calm all the depositors. He did not stop working. In his first â€Å"100 days† in the position, he worked with a special session of congress in order to pass recovery legislations. The legislations established the so-called alphabet agencies such the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Both of these agencies seek to help people; AAA will support farm prices and CCC will help to employ young men. Other agencies are set up to give assistance to labor and business, to insure bank deposits, to control and regulate stock market, to subsidize home and farm mortgage payments and to help the unemployed. Although his New Deal program was, a great help in the economic recovery; it resulted to an increase in government spending and unbalanced budget allocation that led to criticisms. Nevertheless, this state did not affect the political popularity of Roosevelt. In 1935, he established the Works projects administration (WPA) that gives employment to many people including the artists, writers, musicians and authors. In addition to this, Roosevelt has established the Social Security Act that gives additional compensation and benefits to employees. He was the only American president to take the position more than two terms. He defeated Alfred M. Landon in 1936, Wendell Wilkie in 1940 and Thomas E. Dewey in 1944. After he gained his awesome victory in the presidential election in 1936, Roosevelt has also gained some critics of the New Deal. The Supreme Court had declared several legislations unconstitutional. Many setbacks have occurred during his second term. He led United States away from the Isolationism during the World War. He has supported Winston Churchill with his efforts against the Axis Powers. Roosevelt played an important role in the post-world war. He created the United Nations in 1945, which has the goal of maintaining world peace. With his leadership, the American liberalism was redefined and the Democratic Party was restructured. The United States became neutral regarding the war however when the Japanese attacked the Pearl harbor on December 7, 1941, four days after both Italy and Germany have declared war against the United States, US was put into war. As a commander-in-chief of US military armed forces, he exercised his powers in order to fight the axis powers. He initiated the formation of â€Å"grand alliance† which was against Japan, Italy and Germany. His first mission is to invade Europe. The United States together with its allies invaded North Africa, then Sicily and Italy. Axis Powers have lost their momentum. Finally, Germany was invaded and certainly, victory in Europe was attained. The stress, strain, difficulties, struggles in the war has brought Roosevelt into sickness. Early of 1944, he was subjected to a full medical examination. The findings showed that he has a serious heart and circulatory complications. His physicians took care of him and always regulate his food intake. He was placed to a very strict medication. However, none of the efforts treats the malady. The pressures of war and politics worsen his condition. April 12, 1945 at the Warm Springs, Georgia, he got a massive stroke and eventually died after two and one-half hours. He died at the age of 63. It was the time when United States have gained a complete victory in Europe and Japan. His remains were buried at his hometown. Franklin D. Roosevelt is a noble man, a brave man. Who can forget him- his contributions to his nation and even to the world? Roosevelt dedication on his role as the leader was amazing. With his crippled legs, he was able to serve the people, the people who really seek for help. I remember one of his quotations,† A conservative is a man with two perfectly good legs who, however, has never learned how to walk forward†. Roosevelt was one of the greatest men who live on earth. He was a prudent leader. He does not let his deficiencies overcome his ambitions. He was a role model to everyone. He always looked for the welfare of his people. He can be considered as a hero. I admire him for being persevering. For me he is man of his words– a man that would do anything just to serve helpless people. I admired him for being a strong-willed person. He never gives up and very firm with all the decisions he made. I admired him for being Franklin D. Roosevelt. Work Cited â€Å"2006. The American Presidency. 10 April 2008 http://ap. grolier. com/article? assetid=a2025680-h.

Determinants of Health Insurance Choices

Determinants of Health Insurance Choices CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background to the Problem Health care financing in developing countries remain a policy issue with few countries able to spend the $34 per capita recommended by the World Health Organisation as minimum requirement for basic health care. Lack of financial resources to adequately meet the increasing demand for health care needs of the African population remain a persistent problem, and is becoming more critical in the context of increasing incidences of non- communicable diseases. Consequently, there have been attempts by African governments to explore different methods of health care financing. The 2005 World Health Assembly encouraged its member states to move towards achieving universal coverage. Universal coverage does not only relate to generation of health care funds but implies equity in access and guaranteed financial risk protection. As it is the desire of all countries to move towards a system of universal coverage,6 it is argued that irrespective of the source of financing for the health system selected, prepayment and pooling of resources and risks arbasic principles in financial-risk protection. Further recognition of the importance of universal coverage for countries led to the WHO proposing the 2010 World Health Report to address financing for universal health coverage (UHC). Since independence, one of the overall objectives of the government of Kenya has been to promote and improve the health status of Kenyans. This objective is motivated by the evidence that investing in health produces positive outcomes in human capital that have long term impacts in the overall socio-economic development of a country (World Bank 1993; Mwabu 1998). In a number of government policy documents and in successive National Development Plans, the government has set forth that the provision of health services should be available, accessible and affordable to those in most need of healthcare (sessional paper No. 10 of 1965; KHPFP, various Development Plans). Different health financing policy initiatives have been undertaken in Kenya, all aimed largely at addressing affordability and access to health care services. Universalist free health for all policy saw a rapid expansion of the healthcare infrastructure, particularly in the 1970s and 1980s, and advances in health and social indicators. During this period, health financing system was supported primarily via general tax revenue. With the growing population and worsening socio-economic and political factors, a severe crisis of health and social development unraveled in the 1990s (UNDP 2002). As a result of the crisis, the governments objectives and commitments to free healthcare provision for all eroded dramatically forcing it to implement a cost-sharing scheme in 1989. User fees were abolished for outpatient care in 1990, inspired by concerns about social justice, but re-introduced in 1992 because of budgetary constraints. Today, these fees have remained, with their impact on access to health care the subject of several empirical studies. The user fee system was significantly altered in June 2004, when the Ministry of Health stipulated that health care at dispensary and health centre level be free for all citizens, except for a minimal registration fee in government health facilities. Health financing in Kenya is characterized by a high out of pocket expenditure. The Annual Health Sector Statistics Report (2008), indicate that the out of pocket expenditure as a proportion of total expenditure stands at 36% while public expenditure as a proportion of total health expenditure is 29% per cent. 31 per cent of the total health expenditure comes from the development partners while the private companies contribute 3%. This kind of scenario makes access to health a big problem for the majority of the people below the poverty line that constitute about 45.9 per cent of the population. According to the 2007 Kenya Household Expenditure Survey, 37.7% of Kenyans who were ill and did not seek care were hindered by cost. Health insurance is emerging as the most preferred form of health financing mechanism in situations where private out-of-pocket expenditures on health are significantly high and cost recovery strategies affect the access to healthcare. The need for health insura nce in Kenya has been recognized by policymakers for quite some time now, as exemplified by the establishment of NHIF in 1966 through an Act of Parliament. The most significant event in the recent past has been the governments interest in social health insurance as a health financing method and its possible implementation in Kenya. The aim is to ensure equity and access to healthcare services by all Kenyans. Despite the recognition of the importance of health insurance by the government, the number of people in Kenya enrolled in health insurance schemes is low (KNBS, 2009). In view of this, there is need to carry out a study on factors determining choice of health insurance. Overview of Health Insurance in Kenya Kimani et al (2004) put forward that health insurance in Kenya has been provided by both private and public systems. The main objective of the health systems has been to insure Kenyans against health risks that they may encounter in future. The broad categories of health insurance in Kenya are as discussed below: Private Healthcare Insurance Health insurance is considered private when the third party (insurer) is a profit organisation (Republic of Kenya, 2003a). In private insurance, people pay premiums related to the expected cost of providing services to them, that is, people who are in high health risk groups pay more, and those at low risk pay less. Cross-subsidy between people with different risks of ill health is limited. Membership of a private insurance scheme is usually voluntary. Private health insurance has been offered by general insurance firms, which offer healthcare insurance as one of their portfolio of products. Therefore, their intention may be driven by the profit motive as business enterprises rather that the pursuit to promote the general health of Kenyans. Wangombe et al (1994) identify two categories of private health insurance in Kenya: direct private health insurance and, employment based insurance. Nderitu (2002) notes that direct private health insurance is very expensive and only the middle and high-income groups afford it In the employment-based plans, the employer provides care directly through employer-owned on site health facility, or through employer contracts with health facilities or healthcare organisations. These are both voluntary health schemes and are not legislated by the government. According to Techlink International Report (1999), few firms provide healthcare insurance in the strict sense of insurance in private healthcare insurance in Kenya. The general insurance firms offering healthcare insurance as one of their portfolio of products include American Life Insurance Company (ALICO), Apollo Insurance, GMD Kenya, Kenya Alliance Insurance Company Ltd, and UAP Provincial Insurance. Other firms run medical schemes and they are in two categories: the first category provides healthcare through own clinics and hospitals (these include AAR Health Services, Avenue Healthcare Ltd, Comprehensive Medical Services, Health Plan Services), while the other category provides healthcare through third party facilities (examples are Bupa International, Health Management Services and Health First International). These medical schemes are also known as Health Management Organisations (HMOs). HMOs are registered as companies under the Companies Act. The concept originated in the US , where HMOs also help the government to disseminate preventive messages to the public. They were introduced in Kenya a decade ago in response to a 1994 Government call on the private sector to assist in medical care. HMOs are filling a vacuum left by the public health insurance scheme. In HMOs, the patient pays a fixed annual fee, called a capitation fee, to cover the medical costs. Members of a HMO must go to the doctors of that HMO. In addition, to see a specialist, their HMO family doctor must refer them. HMOs have grown rapidly especially in the last few years, especially among those who are covered by employer-provided health plans, mainly because they have helped contain cost increases. National Hospital Insurance Fund (NHIF) The NHIF was established by an Act of Parliament in 1966 as a department in the Ministry of Health, which oversaw its operations, but responsible to the government Treasury for fiscal matters. The Fund was set up to provide for a national contributory hospital insurance scheme for all residents in Kenya. The Act establishing the NHIF provided for the enrolment in the NHIF of all Kenyans between the ages of 18 and 65 and mandates employers to deduct premium from wages and salaries. Contributions and membership are compulsory for all salaried employees earning a net salary of Kshs. 1000 per month and above. The level of contribution is graduated according to income, ranging from Ksh 30 to Ksh 320 per month. The Fund covers up to 180 inpatient hospital days per member and his/her beneficiaries per year. Besides being self-financing and self-administering, the Fund monitors its own collections and distributes benefits to providers. The NHIF Act also provides for the Fund to make loans from its reserves to hospitals for service improvement. Over the years, the original Act of Parliament has been reviewed to accommodate the changing healthcare needs of the Kenyan population, employment and restructuring in the health sector. The government restructured the NHIF Act in 1998 to make the Fund an autonomous parastatal. The apex of NHIF is no longer the Ministry but a Board of Directors. The Fund was given the task of enabling as many Kenyans as possible to have access to quality and affordable healthcare against a background of rising medical costs and a dwindling share of resources. According to the amended NHIF Act, beneficiaries are both in-patients and outpatients (section 22 of NHIF Act, 1998), but outpatient services are not yet operational. NHIF Management Board pays benefits to declared hospitals for expenses incurred at those hospitals by any contributor, his/her named spouse, child or other named dependant. According to the NHIF Act, the benefits payable from the Fund are limited to expenses incurred in respect of drugs, laboratory tests and diagnostic services, surgical, dental, or medical procedures or equipment, physiotherapy care and doctors fees, food and boarding costs (Republic of Kenya, 1999). Though the NHIF is meant to be a health insurance scheme after the amendment of the NHIF Act in 1998, it is still a hospital insurance scheme since it only pays for inpatient services only. Currently, NHIF pays more than half of a typical inpatient bill in private-for-profit sector in urban areas. Although benefit rates have been increased since the onset of the cost-sharing programme, the Funds reimbursement levels remain a small proportion of the total costs of care in many for-profit facilities The relevance of NHIF has been questioned in the light of access and affordability of healthcare for the poor, together with its coverage. It is for this reason that the Kenyan Government has proposed a scheme that is supposed to address fundamental concerns regarding equity, access, affordability and quality in the provision of health services in Kenya. National Social Health Insurance Fund The proposed mandatory social health insurance scheme, seeks to transform the NHIF into a National Social Health Insurance Fund (NSHIF) to provide health insurance cover to both outpatients and inpatients. The main objective of the Fund is to facilitate the provision of accessible, affordable and quality healthcare services to all its members irrespective of their age, economic or social status (Republic of Kenya, 2003b). It will be compulsory for every Kenyan and every permanent resident to become a member through enrolment and payment of a subscription either monthly or annually, or as may be deemed convenient to different socio-economic groups. Subscriptions for the poor will be paid for with funds from the government and other sources. The current cost sharing fees will be replaced by pre-paid contribution into the new scheme. Some of the services that the members will enjoy under the new outpatient cover include: general consultation with general practitioners; prescribed laboratory tests/investigations; drugs/medicines; prescribed X-rays and ultra sound diagnosis; treatment of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs); Treatment, dressing or diagnostic testing; family planning; ante-natal and post-natal care; clinical counseling services; health and wellness education (Ministry of Health, 2004a) Statement of the Problem Health insurance is an institutional and financial mechanism which is seen as one option of obtaining additional resources for the financing of health care without deterring the poor and the vulnerable group from seeking care when they need it. It has the potential of generating substantial funds for equitable health care. Governments funds so saved could then be diverted to the development and expansion of primary health care services and other infrastructure. It is a way of improving quality and access to health care as well as managing resources more efficiently. Health insurance helps households and private individuals to set aside financial resources to meet costs of medical care in event of illness. It is based on the principle of pooling funds and entrusting management of such funds to a third party (government, employer or insurance company or a provider) that pays for healthcare costs of members who contribute to the pool. Lack of health insurance promotes deferment in seeking care, non-compliance of the treatment regime and results in an overall poor health outcome (Hadley, 2002). Tropical diseases, especially malaria and tuberculosis have long been a public problem in Kenya. However, Beyond grappling with a persistent high burden of infectious disease, including malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis, Kenya faces an emerging chronic diseases problem characterized by increasing rates of cardiovascular disease, cancers, and diabetes.   Since the 1990s some of Kenyas early achievements in health have begun to reverse: Over the past two decades life expectancy has declined to 53 years, and mortality among children under the age of five has risen slightly. In Kenya, only about 10% of the population has some form of health insurance (KNBS, 2010; Republic of Kenya, 2009; Kinuthia, 2002). Coverage has remained the same since 2003. This implies that a huge segment of Kenyans are still not covered hence the burden of paying bills lies with themselves or through fund raising. In addition, most of the insurance firms are located in urban areas where a substantial number of population can afford as compared to rural areas. With the current debate on the introduction of National Social Health insurance, there is need to examine the factors which affect individuals decisions of enrolling in health insurance scheme. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to identify the factors that influence choice of health insurance among Kenyans. Specific Objectives To evaluate socio-economic factors influencing choice of health insurance in Kenya. To determine the role of information on the choice factors of health insurance in Kenya. To determine how location factor influences the choice of health insurance in Kenya. Make policy recommendations Chapter two LITERATURE REVIEW Theoretical framework The theory of demand for health insurance is based on expected utility theory of The standard economic theory of behavior under uncertainty is well known; risk  averse individuals will pay to avoid severe financial consequences of the unfortunate  state of the world. In some markets, that willingness to pay to avoid risk leads to the  existence of contingent contracts, or insurance markets. In the health insurance context,  the unfortunate state of the world can be described as the event of illness or fear of  illness serious enough to require an individual or family to pay the full cost of necessary  and efficacious medical care solely out of current income or wealth. Risk averse  individuals facing actuarially fair prices will fully insure, but with unavoidable loading  costs in the real world, individuals prefer incomplete insurance. The optimal degree of  coverage in the face of loading costs is increasing in the degree of risk aversion. Ones degree or intensity of risk aversion to not having health insurance can be  reasonably posited to depend upon wealth (W), because the potential financial loss from  catastrophic illness is increasing in wealth, although after a very high threshold level of  wealth is reached, risk aversion may decline again; education (ED), because more  educated people know the consequences of not having insurance, they know the  likelihood of appropriate health care being efficacious, and they also may have more  confidence that they can obtain efficacious care within any insurance and delivery  system; income (Y), because financial protection both of wealth and of current income or consumption streams is a normal good; family status (FS), since parents and  married partners may be more likely to seek coverage for family members whom they  care about and/or for whom they feel responsible; other access to insurance  (OTHER_ESI, ELIG), since the value placed on any particul ar insurance option may be  different if one is married to a worker whose employer offers coverage, or if some family  member(s) is(are) eligible for public insurance; health status (HS) of everyone in the  family; perceived risk (RISK) to health status, increasing in age and other sometimes  observable clinical factors which we summarize with _, so that RISK = RISK(age,_);  gender (SEX), since men and women have different health use profiles; and then,  contingent on a health shock that requires an intervention, ones aversion to the risk of  illness also depends upon expected expenditures (EX) and the variance of possible  expenditures (_EX). These expenditure functions depend upon the quantity (C) and  quality (q) of medical care that may be necessary (and efficacious) as well as the  expected price of each unit of that medical care (PC). Note, when it comes to risk  aversion and demand for health insurance, the expected value of necessary medical care  is not more important than the variance of that potential demand or need for medical care,  i.e., the upper bound of potentially required medical care affects demand. In other words,  the first two moments of the health services utilization and expenditure distribution  matter, a priori, to insurance demand. We find it useful to think about an individuals demand for health insurance  having two classes of arguments: those that reflect influences on the subjective value of  insurance coverage per se, and those that determine the net price to the consumer. From  the above, one may summarize the value of a particular package of health benefits, V(Bi),  ERIU Working Paper 3 6 as: V(Bi) = V(W, ED, Y, FS, OTHER_ESI, ELIG, HS, RISK, SEX, EX(C,q,PC), _EX). Let the price of health insurance (to the individual) be P*. Health insurance demand for a  particular package of benefits is then: HId = 0 if V(Bi) HId > 0 if V(Bi) _ P*. Thus we have the truism, people will be uninsured if the value to them of the insurance  benefit package they can buy is less than the price they have to pay. We also note the  obvious that those which value health insurance the most are likely to buy the most of it,  conditional on a given price. This concept of V(B) is similar to Pauly and Herrings  notion of reservation price for health insurance (Pauly and Herring, 2002, forthcoming),  and V(B) P* is similar to consumer surplus. An interesting feature of health insurance markets is that some of those with the  highest V(B) are also those most likely to make choices such as seeking jobs from  employers that offer health insurance that lead them to find the lowest prices of health  insurance (P*). Thus purchasers of insurance are likely to obtain substantial consumer  surplus. Other people with high demand say those who expect to be very sick are  unable to work. They often either qualify for public programs or end up facing very high  prices in the private non-group insurance market, and sometimes can find no one willing  to sell insurance to them at any actuarially fair price.3 Therefore, it is difficult to sustain  the interpretation that observed prices paid in health insurance markets reflect  equilibrium marginal subjective values of having health insurance.{my argument is that  3Pollitz K, R Sorian, and K Thomas, How Accessible is Individual Health Insurance for Consumers in  L ess-Than-Perfect Health? Report to the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, June 2001.  buyers have CS, so nobodys marginal utility is revealed in these markets. I inserted a  new CS sentence above}. The arguments in our expressions of health insurance demand are useful for  general expressions of demand, but we also need to make clear that some eligible people  do not enroll in insurance even though the monetary cost is zero . This would not seem  possible from our characterization of health insurance demand. The important point is  that P* in our framework represents more than just monetary cost. P* includes time cost  and any disutility from an enrollment process that is perceived as burdensome or  embarrassing (e.g. some say a kind of stigma is associated with Medicaid since it was for  so long associated with people on cash assistance). We explain more in section 4 what is  known about the ways P* exceeds zero for various public insurance programs with zero  nominal fees. 2.2 Socially Empirical Literature Kirigia et al (2005), using data from the 1994 South African Health Inequalities Survey (SANHIS) examined the relationship between health insurance ownership and the demographic, economic and educational characteristics of South African women. Applying binary logistic regression technique, they found out that environmental rating, residence, smoking and marital status variables determined health insurance coverage. The 2002 Jamaican Survey of Living Conditions was used to model the determinants of private health insurance coverage. Bourne and Kerr-Campbell (2010), using logistic regression to estimate the determinants of health insurance coverage, found out that social standing, durable goods, income, marital status, area of residence, education, social support, crowding, psychological conditions, retirement benefits, living arrangements, the number of males in the household and good health determined health insurance coverage. Nketiah-Amponsah (2009) investigated the determinants of public health insurance among women aged 15-49 in Ghana using primary data collected in three districts in Ghana in 2008. Using the logit model the paper concludes that marital status, income, age, religion and access to television and newspapers are the most significant determinants of womens insurance coverage. In addition, health inputs like medical personnel and health infrastructure increase demand for health insurance and health care. Another study using primary data was conducted in Ghana by Sarpong et al (2010) to explore the association between socio-economic status and subscription to the Ghanaian National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS). Applying logistic regression, they concluded that economic well being and distance to the closest health facility were important determinants of National health insurance coverage. Gius (2010), using data from the 2008 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) estimated the logistic model for determinants of health insurance coverage for young adults. They posit that socioeconomic factors among them, age, sex, race, employment, area of residence, cost of insurance and beliefs held about health insurance are important in determining the health insurance coverage. In Malawi, Makoka et al (2007), based on a logistic regression found income and education as significant determinants of private health care where public health services are free. This study used primary data collected from Blantyre and Zomba cities in 2003. A working paper study by Bhat and Jain (2006) examined factors affecting the demand for health insurance in a micro health insurance scheme setting. Estimating Takeuchi et al (1998) estimating the logistic model for factors associated with health insurance coverage among Chinese Americans in Los Angeles county found out that marital status, length of stay in the United States, education, employment and household income were important factors determining health insurance coverage. Hopkins and Kidd (1992), utilizing data from the 1989-90 National Health Survey examined the socio-economic variables which influence the demand for health insurance under medicare in Australia using the binary logit model. They conclude that age, income, health status, material wellbeing and geographical location are important determinants of decision to purchase insurance. Owando (2006) carried out a study on factors influencing the demand for health insurance in Kenya. Using the probit model, they found out that age, self evaluated health status, marital status, income, level of educational attainment, household size, risk behavior and employment status were important determinants of health insurance ownership in Kenya. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY Theoretical Framework This study borrows heavily from the demand theory. Health Insurance is treated just like any other good. Hence, demand for health insurance should be affected by variables such as price of the commodity, price of related commodities, income, tastes and preferences among others. The demand equation for health insurance is modeled as follows: Model Specification The decision to buy health insurance will be formulated in two interrelated choices. First, the choice is related to the decision to buy or not the health insurance. Since the dependent variable takes two forms, will use binary logit model to study this choice. Theory and previous empirical work (Kirigia et al ,2005; Bourne and Kerr-Campbell, 2010) suggest that the probability that an individual owns a health insurance is conditional on several socio economic variables including age, education, area of residence, household size, occupation, marital status, health status among others. In this study, the relationship between the binary status variable and its determinants is specified as follows: Where are the following independent variables: age, sex, marital status, area of residence, level of education, proxy measures for economic welfare (land ownership availability of electricity, characteristics of dwelling place), knowledge (access to radio, television and newspaper), household size, occupation, health status (HIV and Tuberclosis), cigarette smoking. The second step, if the decision to buy insurance is positive is to focus attention to the types of health insurance, that is, community based health insurance, health insurance trough employer, social security and private health insurance. This can be handled by applying a polychotomous model, more in particular a multinomial logit model. This approach is justifiable because the categories refer to choices being made that are mutually exclusive. The regression model is expressed as follows: Data Sources and Variables The study will utilize survey methodology in which secondary data relating to the issue under investigation will be obtained from the 2008-09 Kenya Demographic Health Survey (KDHS). This is a nationally representative sample survey of 8,444 women aged between 18-44 years and 3465 men aged between 15 and 54 years of age selected from 400 sample points (clusters) throughout Kenya. Data collection was done from the month of November, 2008 and February, 2009. Dependent and Independent variable The dependent variable will be health insurance ownership. For purposes of coding the health insurance ownership outcome

Standard of living :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Out of the U.S., Japan, and China, I think Japan has the best standart of living. The first reason is their health. Life expectancy is how long the people of that country live, or the quality of their health. In Japan, females live to be 83.45, and males live to be 77.13. In the United States, females live to be 79.75, and males live to be 73.04. In China, females live to be 71.9, and males live to be 68.82. Another important factor in health is number of hospital beds. The numer of hospital beds is the access to health care for serious problemes. In first again Japan has one hospital bed for every 74 people. In the China, there is one hospital bed for every 242 people. In the United States, there is one hospital bed for every 243 people. The last thing that proves Japan has the best health is infant mortality rate. This indicates better quality of pre-natal and post-natal care. In Japan 4.05 out of 1000 babies die before their first birthday. In the U.S., 6.67 out of 1000 babies die before their first birthday. In China, very sadly, 41.14 out of 1000 babies die before their first birthday. Another indicator that a counrty has a better standard of livin is a population growth indicator. Population growth determines if a country needs to do something about its population. Population growth rate is how fast a country's population. Japan has a population growht rate of .181%, which is very good. The U.S. has a population growth rate of .55%. And China has a population growth rate of .939%. Another part of population growth indicators is what percent of the population is under 15. Japan is at 14.8%, the U.S. is at 21.2%, and China is at 25.4%. Another indicator of standard of living is access to adequate diet. This is the same thing as infant mortallity rate. Japan is 41.14 out of 1000, the U.S. is at 6.67 out of 1000, and China is at 4.05 out of 1000. Another thing that proves Japan has a better standard of living is education. Years of compusory education is how many years a person is required to go to school. Japan requires 10 years. China and the U.S. require 9 years. Literacy rate is what percent of the population has access to knowledge so they can to basic reading, math, and reading.

Swot Analyss

Strengths Comar chemicals is regarded as a leader in the tyre and paint industry. This phenomenon is ascribed to the following strengths: †¢Contracts in place with Goodyear, Continental, Plascon, Bridgestone, Dunlop, and Michelin. †¢Product quality of the highest standard. Automated plant control systems in place, constant in-production quality control tests controlled by chemical director, Vernon Redding. Compliant raw materials with specifications are being utilised. †¢Succession planning in place since the appointment of Stefan as operational manager. This person is ear marked to substitute Vernon Redding, in the event of his departure.Buy and sell agreement entered into by directors, Udo Eric Eichrodt and Dieter Roland. †¢Management team is experienced and highly qualified. †¢Udo Eric Eichrodt: 30 years – BComm Marketing Management †¢Dieter Roland: 29 years – Bcomm Investment Management †¢Vernon Redding: 45 years – PhD Chemi stry †¢Stefan: 12 years – BScHons Chemistry †¢May Rossouw: 24 years – BCommHons (Management Accounting) †¢Nicki de Villiers: 15 years – MComm (Transport Economics) †¢Low staff turnover. The company invests in staff morale as it understands it to be its biggest asset. †¢BEE Status 20% black owned, Vernon Redding, Indian.Promotes business in South Africa and abroad. †¢ISO 9001:2008 Certified (International Organization for Standardization. ) Little trouble has been encountered in the past to comply with minimum standards required by this certification. †¢Unqualified annual audited financial statements. This is testament to good governance practiced. Low gearing, although non-current assets are shown at R4m. Market value of plant and property exceeds R20m. Company is liquid, considering current assets to current liabilities ratio of 4:1. †¢Comar chemicals operates from totally owned premises. European Safety & Reliability Ass ociation (ESRA) certified. Toxic waste is dealt with in a responsible and reliable manner. Contamination of ground is highly unlikely as the company places a high premium on â€Å"going green. † †¢Flexibility and research development ensures ongoing sustainability. †¢Product reliability. Order tracking procedure and commitment of staff ensures a good reputation of the company. †¢Absolute advantage, ability to produce specific product more efficiently than any other nation. Factors of production are relatively cheaper than any other country. †¢Zero tolerance for human error.The company has strict rules and procedures that need to be followed to ensure the mainstay of the business. Disciplinary actions are taken against culprits, which could lead to dismissal. Weaknesses The following weaknesses have been identified: †¢Comar Chemicals is faced with multiple taxes due to the fact that it is a multinational enterprise that runs in various different contri es. Operating in various different countries leads to multiple tax jurisdictions. Multiple tax jurisdictions may lead to the overlapping of taxes and the company may end up with a double taxation. (1) †¢The economic model introduces some weaknesses to the company.There are various factors that affect the economic activity of Comar Chemicals. These include the resource limitations placed on the company’s ability to obtain certain chemicals or the availability of chemicals needed in the factors of production. Environmental or geographical constraints can increase their expenses due to extra transportation costs for raw materials and finished goods. The factory could be situated in an area which is prone to seasonal bad weather (Cape Town). This could slow down the process of moving materials and Comar Chemicals will bear the economic impact of a loss of potential revenue and increased costs.Theirs will also be certain institutional and legal requirements that Comar Chemica ls will have to follow and they will vary in the three different countries that they operate in, South Africa, Switzerland and Germany. Comar Chemicals may have to adhere to different legal levels of Co2 production that they create during their production process and will have to regulate these levels in compliance with the legal levels set by the government. †¢Comar Chemicals has no buy and sell agreement supported by life insurance.A buy and sell agreement is a binding legal document that governs the conditions if a co-owner dies or is otherwise forced to leave the business. The fact that there is no buy and sell agreement supported by life cover means that if owner of the company passes way or is forced to leave the business then all the debt or liabilities incurred by the business will be left to the closest relative of the owner. This could lead to a liquidation of the business if there is no insurance cover. Therefore the business is not completely safe in the case of a p ersonal crisis within the business. 2) †¢Promotion for staff is limited due the low staff turnover that Comar Chemicals has. Comar Chemicals has a total of 38 employees that includes two scientists, one accountant and one logistics manager. This can also be seen as a strength however the fact that there are so few employees, there are few promotions to employees. This can cause employees to become less motivated towards their job and company and in turn this could decrease the total production and the total efficiency of production. †¢Employee empowerment is the act of giving more responsibility to workers in the work place. 3) The empowerment of staff can lead to a weakness within Comar Chemicals due to the fact that firstly, the business has a relatively small number of employees. This can lead to an increase in conflict between the employees as to why one employee has been empowered more than another. This can cause bad interpersonal relationships between employees. Emp owerment can also be a weakness if the wrong employee has been empowered to take on a certain task or manage a project that he or she has not been specifically trained for. This could create problems within the managerial and operational sectors of Comar Chemicals.If empowerment of employees is going to be an on-going activity at Comar Chemicals then it has to be carried out in a way that makes sure that the right employees are being empowered for the right reasons. †¢Comar Chemicals has no key man insurance. This is very similar to the absence of a buy and sells agreement, supported by life cover that was previously mentioned. Key man insurance is an insurance policy that is takes out by the business to compensate for financial losses that would arise from the death or extended incapacity of an important member of the business.Key man insurance can cover many insurable losses that include, losses related to the period when the key person was unable to work and insurance to pro tect profits, insurance to protect shareholders and partnership agreements. Without key man insurance, Comar Chemicals is vulnerable to the chance that something happens to the owner and there is no protection or financial security for the business in the future. (4) Opportunities There are many opportunities for Comar Chemicals to utilise to maximise their business productivity and profitability. There are two types of opportunities, external and internal.External opportunities affect the organisation due to independent factors. Internal opportunities exist within the firm. Opportunities, when realised, can have enormous rewards for the business if the opportunities are exploited correctly. An opportunity is indication of positive potential that can help a business increase its success. Possible sources of business opportunities in most industries and markets include: Potential Business Opportunities Technological innovation New demand Market growth Demographic change Social or lif estyle change Government spending programmesHigher economic growthTrade liberalisation EU enlargement Diversification opportunity Deregulation of the market The opportunities that Comar can use to their advantage are: import quotas, developing markets, revising job descriptions/digressions, improving competitive levels, forward exchange cover, Solar power, life policies, association with universities and joint development with customers. An Import Quota is like a form of protection. It fixes the amount of products a foreign producing firm is allowed to bring into a country over a specific time period, which is usually a year.The objective of an import quota is to limit imports into a country therefore encouraging the use of domestic products and services, as the amount of the good being imported is limited the price of the specific good increases therefore domestic firms benefit. Comar, being situated in South Africa, Switzerland and Germany, can use this as an opportunity by increa sing domestic employment. There will be a larger demand for Comar Chemicals because import quotas will make it more expensive to import these goods from international competitors.This will encourage Comar to employ more citizens that are qualified for the job because of the expanding demand of their product and the need for increased labour and skills in the organisation. Comar is a small business, with 38 employees including two scientists, an accountant and a logistics specialist. Comar is 14 years old, which is relatively young compared to it competitors therefore it can be considered an â€Å"infant industry† which is still developing and is not big enough to compete fairly.Import quotas allow Comar to mature onto a same competitive level as international organisations. South Africa is a developing country and the market for metal carboxylates is expanding with the increase of paint and coatings, printing inks and chemical industry, polyester industry, grease and gear oil s industry and PolyButadiene, Isoperene Butadine and Copolymers industry. With the increase of construction and manufacturing in South Africa, these industries are in higher demand than ever before. Comar can improve their competing levels through product quality.Quality relates to ‘appropriate use': how well a product does what it is intended to do. This can include a compliance of raw materials with specifications, detailed manufacturing and quality control test procedures, in-production tests of final products, introduction of automated plant control systems. These quality control methods leave little room for error, positioning the product on a high level of quality which will lead to a smart modern working environment and a reflection of the quality of the business as a whole.Comar’s leading product is COMCAT, which inclueds a rare earth catalyst which is used in the synthetic rubber industry to manufacture advanced rubber tyres – making tyres softer but mor e durable which in turn lowers the level of CO2 emissions from vehicles. This gives Comar a competitive advantage as their products are also helping the environment and decreasing the level of harm through innovative products, which will draw the attraction of buyers.There can often be discrepancies about the actual responsibilities, tasks and duties of a certain position within the organization; this can be managed by revising job descriptions. There must be an accurate reflection of the true functions and responsibilities for a job description to be effective. A comprehensive job description can be used in management to measure employee performance and employees can use the job description as a guideline to comprehend the expectations of the position. This can lead to improved productivity and ohesiveness within the organization to help realize the organizations objectives and goals. Comar can use the opportunity to become involved with universities to further their research and p rovide university departments with their expertise of the product to evolve students into potential employees of their firm or for that specific industry. For example, Comar could give bursaries to deserved students to pay for their studies in a BSC, specializing in COMCAT (PolyButadiene, Isoperene Butadine and Copolymers industry).They could provide all the necessary tools (research, expertise, information) in order to establish awareness of this specific product and market the need for this specific scientist in this field. Joint development with customers involves a good relationship between the manufacturer and the customer. The manufacturer must be enthusiastic and prepared to open up its daily practices and activities to its customers, this will give the customer the opportunity to carefully scrutinize and evaluate the ways in which the manufacturer operates, during the production process, and the quality of the finished products.An important issue when dealing with joint deve lopment with customers is communication. When there is a healthy line of communication between the manufacturer and the customer, there can be am exchange of ideas between parties leading to effective production and customer satisfaction. Threats Threats are conditions in the business environment that are uncontrollable and have the potential to harm business profitability. One of the most common threats is competitors. There are a number of threats that Comar may face, including: future trends in the specific field, social issues, the economy, funding, demographics and the physical environment.When observing the potential threats that Comar may face, the following needs to be determined: the obstacles Comar may face, competitor’s activity, quality standards and changing technology. Threats can be divided into two categories namely, industry threats, an increase in competition or a decrease in the market size, and macro threats, threats that affect all industries in Comarâ₠¬â„¢s area. Possible sources of business threats include Potential Business Threats New market entrants Change in customer tastes or needs Demographic change Consolidation among buyersNew regulationsEconomic downturn Rise of low cost production abroad Higher input prices New substitute products Competitive price pressure A potential threat Comar may face is the diversity. Diversity is often defined as a positive term for a business, but it also comes with threats that have the potential to ruin productivity. Comar has a diverse workforce, co-workers each have different experiences and perceptions as they have all come from different backgrounds. This could cause cultural clashes which can decrease productivity and cohesiveness of the business as a whole.Comar could also experience divisions in staff members due to the formation of cliques and other groups, this can create competition between employees rather than teamwork, a lack of respect amongst one another and this could lead to costly diversity training to resolve diversity issues within the organisation. Comar has a diverse client base as their company is also situated in Switzerland and Germany. It is therefore crucial for Comar have a bi-lingual customer service, if they do not they will lose a massive amount of clientele as there needs to be effective communication between the two parties in order for the business to be successful.Social issues in the business environment may be a threat to Comar. A social system is a pooling of ideas, attitudes and behaviour which are involved in human relations and interactions. Comar is influenced by its customers attitudes and behaviour, if they are negative relationships within the organisation this could dampen productivity and decrease business profitability and if there are social issues external to the organisation, such as political unrest, could affect consumer behaviour negatively and affect the success of the business.The political; and legal system can a lso pose as a threat to Comar, as business have to follow the specific regulations as set out for them by the government, it creates a set of rules and guidelines that business are expected to adhere by, if a business does not there could be serious consequences that could lead to decreased profitability and even as far as a business being banned. The monetary system facilitates business exchange. Monetary activity has distinct basic functions, namely saving, borrowing, spending and earning, which are all linked to business profitability.Comar has to pay careful attention to all these activities because each of these factors can easily turn into a threat for the business. There are many different parties involved when dealing with money, they are financial institutions, debtors, creditors, customers and suppliers. The interest rate is very important when Comar is dealing with its monetary activities, when an interest rate is high, it increases Comar’s costs and will limit the amount of spending that Comar can participate in.Exchange rates are the value of one nation’s currency in comparison to another. It is very important when determining a business’s effectiveness and whether it will serve as an opportunity or a threat. Comar is a company that does business in South Africa and globally, therefore exchange rates will have an enormous effect on the profitability. When Comar exchanges its products over national borders causing another currency to become involve, fluctuations in exchange rates can lead to profits or losses for Comar.Comar is at an advantage when the rand is relatively strong compared to the currency that the organisation is trading with. When the rand is weak compared to the business it is doing the exchange with, Comar is at a disadvantage as it will be more costly to exchange products across borders. A massive threat that Comar faces is import duty, which is a tax on goods imported into a country. This causes prices to be higher because of the tax cost involved. This cost is passed onto consumers at higher prices, which in turn can lead to consumer dissatisfaction and a loss in clients.Trade restrictions were introduced to restrict importing for many reasons, mainly to protect domestic industries. There are two types of restrictions, tariffs and non-tariffs. Non-tariffs include, methods such as embargo, import quota – which is a limitation on the amount of goods a business is allowed to import, foreign exchange control and currency devaluation. These trade restrictions pose a massive threat to Comar because the organisation is continuously trading over borders and having to deal with trade restrictions, which will inevitably hinder profitability.

Major Andrew Ellicot

Major Andrew Ellicot A commissioned officer in the Maryland militia, Major Andrew Ellicott was a highly accomplished surveyor who, along with Pennsylvania's David Rittenhouse, extended the Mason-Dixon line westward to its originally intended terminus at the southwest corner of Pennsylvania in 1784. English surveyors Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon had been forced to halt their work at the 244-mile point in 1767 due to the threat of hostile Native Americans. The following year, Ellicott was hired to revisit this survey in order to establish and mark 100 miles of the western boundary of Pennsylvania, a line that came to be known as "Ellicott's Line".In 1789, Virginia and Maryland had joined together in donating territory to establish a new federal capital city on the banks of the Potomac River. At the suggestion of President George Washington, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson asked Ellicott to perform the first survey of the District of Columbia.EnfantsEllicott and his assistant, Benjamin Banneker, beg an work in the spring of 1791. The following year Washington asked Ellicott to finish Pierre Charles l'Enfant's plan for the city. L'Enfant was a military engineer appointed by President George Washington to plan the new nation's capital city in March 1791. He had been dismissed from the project because his perfectionism made him difficult to work with, however, his dedication to perfection shaped a plan that has stood the test of time. Ellicott found it necessary to make some changes to L'Enfant's plan. He changed the alignment of Massachusetts Avenue, eliminated five short radial avenues, added two short radial avenues southeast and southwest of the Capitol, and named the city streets. In less than one month Ellicott had a plan ready for the engravers. A few months later Ellicott, like l'Enfant, found himself at odds with the Commissioners and resigned from the project.